Of course knowledge would rarely, even at most, be fallibly present in such an odd way; could it ever be, though? We can best answer that potentially complex question in several stages. Non-empirical or a priori knowledge is possible independently of, or prior to, any experience, and requires only the use of reason; examples include knowledge of logical truths such as the law of non-contradiction, as well as knowledge of abstract claims (such as ethical claims or claims about various conceptual matters). Epistemologists have contemplated at least the following general possibilities. (For different versions, see Schaffer 2005; 2007; Morton 2011.) [On the idea of knowers as reliable informants, see Craig 1990. Therefore, my car will persist in the future. Philosophy’s history of reflection upon knowledge is a history of theses and theories; but no less of questions, concepts, distinctions, syntheses, and taxonomies. Knowledge is always a true belief; but not just any true belief. We must acknowledge, however, that something more than mere fallibility is present within the case: only through some actual oddity does Smith’s true belief (the final belief) eventuate within the case. Bertrand Russell (1959 [1912]: ch. The standard form of argument is an appeal to normality of linguistic usage, even intuitions: ‘Intuitively, knowledge is something more than only a true belief. This argument, however, is circular; its second premise is PUN itself! What any fallibilist could helpfully do, therefore, is to ascertain which standard of fallibility is the minimum one that must be met by any instance of knowing. But is that sort of condition really failed in Gettier cases? In this sense, knowing could be an inherent part of personal development. Section 6.a will discuss that idea; the usual answer is ‘No, perfection is not needed.’ At the very least, that answer was part of the underpinning to the famous 1963 questioning of the justified-true-belief conception of knowledge. After all, fallibility is merely an absence of infallibility; and there might be many possible standards available to be met, each of which would fall short to some or another extent of the absolute achievement constituted by infallibility. “A Causal Theory of Knowing.”. And if such an existence would be a failure to that extent, then perhaps the inherent point or value in knowing a particular truth is the point or value in knowing at all — with this being, in turn, some more or less substantial part of the point or value in living at all. Therefore, PUN will be true in the future. When thinking that the case’s final belief is not knowledge, could epistemologists unwittingly have been applying a higher standard to the case than a fallibilist one? First, we must determine the nature of knowledge; that is, what does it mean to say that someone knows, or fails to know, something? An attempt to combine coherentism and foundationalism into an internalist account of justification which is superior to either of the two. “Fallibilism, Epistemic Possibility, and Concessive Knowledge Attributions.”. A defense of coherentism. After all, if I were asked, at the time that I looked at the clock, whether it is working properly, I would have said that it is. Both philosophers indeed believed that knowledge was possible, but both were in opposing camps as to how we come to actually attain that knowledge. My belief is true, of course, since the time is indeed 11:56. Such an argument would proceed as follows: PUN has always been true in the past. Suppose that the clock on campus (which keeps accurate time and is well maintained) stopped working at 11:56pm last night, and has yet to be repaired. It could depend on what is being known innately — the subject matter of this knowledge with which the person has been born. help you easily reset your password and start exploring the new Great Courses Plus immediately. We might want to say that, in order for belief A to be appropriately based on belief B (or beliefs B1 and B2, or B1, B2, and…Bn), the truth of B must suffice to establish the truth of A, in other words, B must entail A.

Even if the generality problem can be solved, another problem remains for externalism. Having covered ways of gaining evidence and justifying belief in pursuit of knowledge, now ask: Is knowledge really possible? Any claim to knowledge must be evaluated to determine whether or not it indeed constitutes knowledge. If your definition is such that is is impossible or you say that knowledge does not exist at all, then it is not possible.

Let’s consider two of those forms of doubt. Such a thought is mistaken, though, even if we regard contextualism as indirectly a theory of knowing.

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